PY3004: PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
Semester 2:
February-May 2004.
Number of students for 2004: 50 (approx).
Course Organiser and Lecturer:
Patrick Greenough
Seminar leaders:
Daniel Nolan and Stephen Read (click here to access info about Dr. Read's seminars)
WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE?
Every branch of philosophy is characterised by three things:
(1) the questions asked and the puzzles posed,
(2) the answers and responses given, and
(3) what counts as a good answer or response to these questions and puzzles.
So, what sort of questions do we ask in the philosophy of language? The central questions are the following definitional (or conceptual) questions: (a) what is language? (b) what is meaning? (c) what is understanding? (d) what is communication?
In endeavouring to answer these definitional questions, we in turn find ourselves asking the following more specific questions:
(a) Is what way is language a rule-governed activity? What is a rule? What is the relationship between language and thought? Could there be thought without the possibility of speech? Is thought simply 'silent speech'
¾ an inaudible whispering in the head? In what way does our view of language shape how we look at the world? How does language represent? Could there be a private language? Can the study of language provide the key to solving all philosophical problems? What is common to all possible languages?
(b) Why do some sounds/inscriptions have meaning and others do not? How do words relate to the world? What different types of meaning are there? What is the distinction between metaphorical and literal discourse? What are the primary bearers of meaning? Where are meanings located? What is the relationship between meaning and use? Can the concept of truth illuminate the concept of meaning? Is the concept of meaning a concept we can do without in explaining the success of language? Should we be sceptics about meaning?
(c) What counts as mastery of a language? In what does knowledge of meaning consist? Does it consists simply in knowing how to use expressions correctly? If meanings are abstract then how can a grasp of what a word means take place at all since humans are not abstract? Is knowledge of meaning necessary for understanding language? How does a theory of meaning relate to a theory of understanding?
(d) What different types of communication are there? Is communication just the transmission of thought? What is the difference between the communication of information and other sorts of communication? Is language essential to communication?
We could, of course, endeavour to study the philosophy of language by studying these and other relevant questions, one by one, (and in the right conceptual order). But there is a better way ..... The best way to gain a philosophical insight into the nature of language is to begin our investigation by endeavouring to solve a host of language puzzles. In so doing, various answers to the key questions (be they good, bad, or indifferent) will come soon enough ....
COURSE OVERVIEW: LANGUAGE PUZZLES
Russell famously said that a theory of logic [and language]:
may be tested by its capacity for dealing with puzzles, and it is a wholesome plan, in thinking about logic [and language], to stock the mind with as many puzzles as possible, since these serve much the same purpose as is served by experiments in physical science (Russell 'On Denoting', 1905).
This course is entirely Russellian in spirit: it's puzzle-driven. Each week we will look at different set of puzzles concerning the key concepts of meaning, reference, and understanding. Some of these puzzles are related, such as the riddles of reference encountered in lectures 1
-4 (namely, the problem of empty names, the old Platonic riddle of non-being and being, Frege's identity puzzle, and Frege's substitution puzzle, together with Russell's puzzle of the excluded middle). Other puzzles and paradoxes stand on their own ¾ such as Wittgenstein's rule-following paradox (lecture 7). All genuine philosophical puzzles and paradoxes bring philosophical questions into relief. Most of these puzzles we will encounter are very deep and intractable and admit of no uncontroversial solution, while others are merely illustrative ¾ in solving them we gain a better philosophical understanding of the nature of language. The aim of the course, then, is not to spoon feed you received facts and wisdom which must then be duly regurgitated in lectures, but rather to get you to think, analyse, and evaluate for yourself by tackling the key puzzles and paradoxes. In so doing, you will gain an insight into the deepest questions in philosophy.
It's no accident that this course is a core course; indeed, many people take the philosophy of language to be prior to all other branches of philosophy. In the early to mid 20th Century, philosophy underwent what has come to be called The Linguistic Turn. Roughly, this was the (heterogeneous) movement which held that philosophical problems could be solved by rigorous and detailed analysis of language (both natural language and formal, invented language). In more recent years, people have tended to think that the philosophy of language, while central, has no uniquely privileged position in philosophy. (That's roughly the line I shall take.) Nonetheless, we'll find that some of the puzzles encountered in this course connect with key issues and concepts in the philosophy of art (metaphor and representation), in the philosophy of mind (thought, understanding, representation), in metaphysics (existence, object, identity, necessity, essentialism), in epistemology (understanding, belief, contextualism), and the philosophy of logic (substitution, opacity, identity). Indeed, it's part of the explicit purpose of this course to draw these connections where possible.
LECTURES and LECTURE SCHEDULE
Lecture 1:
Language puzzles (9th February).
Lecture 2: Frege and the riddles of reference (16th February).
Lecture 3: Russell and the riddles of reference (23th February).
Lecture 4: Kripke and the causal theory of names (1st March).
Lecture 5: From Kripke to Putnam (8th March).
Lecture 6: Quine's qualms about meaning (15th March).
Lecture 7: The riddle of rule-following: Kripkenstein's monster (22nd March).
Lecture 8: Truth-and Meaning (12th April).
Lecture 9: Speech Acts and Moorean paradoxes (19th April).
Lecture 10: Saying and implicating (26th April).
Lecture 11: The mystery of metaphor (Tuesday 4th May, 1-2pm, School 1).
Please note:
- Missing one lecture is OK, but if you miss two or more you will certainly struggle to keep up.
- Please bring all relevant reading materials with you to the lecture (e.g. set text, relevant photocopies, and previous handouts).
LECTURES: TIME AND PLACE
Day:
Monday.
Time: 12pm
Place: School I
Enrolment: Monday 9th February, 12pm (at first lecture).
Please note three things:
(1) The 2 week vacation is from Sat 27th March to Sunday 11th April (there are of course no lectures/seminars in those two weeks).
(2) Lecture 8 takes place on Easter Monday (12th April) as the University does NOT close on that day.
(3) The University is closed on Monday 3rd May (May Day Bank Holiday) and Lecture 11 will be on a different day, namely Tuesday 4th May 1-2pm, School I).
SEMINARS
Please sign-up for a seminar slot at the first lecture.
If you any queries about signing up for a seminar please contact Patrick, Room 202, Edgecliffe (email: pmg2@st-and.ac.uk; ext. 2481).
Bring all relevant course materials (handouts, set text, photocopies, etc) to each seminar.
Make sure you are properly prepared for each seminar by doing all the set reading and answering all the set questions.
Many students find it very useful to get their heads together before a seminar to discuss the key questions and issues ¾ I strongly encourage you to do so. That way, learning and thinking becomes easier and much more of a pleasure.
SEMINAR SCHEDULE AND SET READING
Seminar 1
(week 2): Gottlob Frege: 'On Sense and Reference' (in set text).
Seminar 2 (week 3): Bertrand Russell: 'On Denoting' (in set text).
Seminar 3 (week 4): Saul Kripke: Naming and Necessity, Lecture 1, excerpts (in set text).
Seminar 4 (week 5): Hilary Putnam: 'Meaning and Reference' (in set text).
Seminar 5 (week 6): W. V. O. Quine: 'Two Dogmas of Empiricism' (in set text).
Seminar 6 (week 7): Saul Kripke: 'On Rules and Private Language' (in set text).
Seminar 7 (week 8): Donald Davidson: 'Truth and Meaning' (in set text).
Seminar 8 (week 9): Paul Grice: 'Logic and Conversation' (in set text).
Seminar 9 (week 11): A. P. Martinich: 'A Theory for Metaphor' (in set text).
Please Note: There are no seminars in week 10 as this is the week when the undergraduate reading party is held.
SEMINAR GROUPS
Group 1:
2pm-3pm Tuesdays, Room 104, Edgecliffe. (Stephen Read)
Group 2: 2pm
-3pm Thursdays, Room 104, Edgecliffe. (Stephen Read)
Group 3: 2pm
-3pm Fridays, Room G03, Edgecliffe. ( Daniel Nolan)
Group 4: 3pm
-4pm Fridays, Room G03, Edgecliffe. (Daniel Nolan)
click here to access information about Dr. Read's seminars)
HANDOUTS
There will be a detailed handout for every lecture.
However, please note that these handouts are deliberately incomplete ¾ by coming to the lecture you will be able to complete the missing sections.
Indeed, even the parts that are complete will not make much sense unless you come to the lectures.
At the end of every handout there will be a set of comprehension questions and discussion questions.
Comprehension questions are designed to test your basic knowledge of the key terms, main theses, and basic moves concerning a particular problem.
Discussion questions, on the other hand, are designed to get you thinking about how one might best evaluate and resolve a philosophical problem.
You should attempt all of these questions each week ¾ your seminar instructor will want to ask you about your answers in the seminars.
The handouts will also guide you as to what is most relevant to read.
ASSESSMENT
This is a core module for Junior Honours in Philosophy. However, should you wish to take this course, it is also available to everyone with a sufficient background in philosophy (consult your honours advisor if you are unsure whether you are equipped to take this course).
It is a 15 credit module.
Assessment is by 2 hour exam (60%) in May and one coursework essay (40%)
The overall grade for each module will be published by the University at the end of the semester in which it is taught.
Grades will be given on the 20-point marking scale: 17-20 Distinction / First Class; 14-16 High Merit / Upper Second Class; 11-13 Low Merit / Lower Second Class; 8-10 Third Class; 5-7 Pass; 1-4 Fail/no credit awarded.
Please Note: It is expected that you will be familiar, and will comply, with the regulations given in the booklet:
Honours Programmes In Philosophy: Information for Students 20032005.
WHAT WE EXPECT OF YOU
The overall aim of this course is to make you think critically for yourself rather than merely reproducing the ideas of others.
Philosophy is not about spoon-feeding received facts which must be duly regurgitated in essays and exams.
The students at St. Andrews are amongst the brightest and most stimulating students in the UK. Nobody wants a university to be an educational factory which takes in such bright students yet ends up turning out mindless, dull, vapid, individuals whose only skill consists in memorising lecture notes. This course is designed to avoid that. Hence, in order properly fulfil your potential I simply ask you to meet the course halfway.
Lectures are simply there in order to introduce you to the key philosophical problems and suggest some possible lines of response.
The lectures and seminars are thus simply a springboard for you to go on and read and think for yourself.
Outside of lectures and seminars we fully expect you to be reading and researching the topics for yourself (as well as having a good time).
As this is a 15 credit course, this means it should constitute about one fifth of your workload this semester.
Assuming a 36 hour week, you should plan to spend about six-seven hours per week on average on this module: two hours for lectures and seminars, leaving four to five hours of private study.
Private study should consist of reading your lecture notes and handouts, preparing for the seminars and doing some additional reading and research relevant to the topic.
Thinking for yourself, doing independent research, showing initiative, and taking appropriate intellectual risks will be rewarded highly.
Please note: You should consult your email every few days as it is assumed by all course lecturers, seminar instructors, and tutors that email is the default method of communication.
COURSEWORK ESSAY
The coursework essay for PY3004 is due in by 4pm Monday 12th April (the Monday of week 8).
The essay questions are given below.
The coursework essay counts for 40% of your final mark.
Your coursework essays and examination answers should not overlap in content.
Essays should be between 2500 and 3000 words (excluding bibliography but including all quotes and footnotes).
You should make three copies of your essay.
Submit two copies and keep the third for yourself.
Make sure you attach and sign a 'Declaration of Own Work' form with your essay.
Essays should be "posted" only in the essay box in the basement of Edgecliffe.
Essays should be marked with your name, your tutor's name, the module number, and the title.
Essays will be returned with grades and comments normally within two weeks of submission.
There are stringent rules as to the granting of an extension.
Normally extensions can only be granted for certified illness or serious personal difficulties.
Plagiarism (passing someone else's work off as your own without acknowledgement) will be very harshly punished and may lead to you failing your degree.
COURSEWORK ESSAY QUESTIONS
(1) What are the virtues and vices of the causal theory of reference?
(2) Critically compare and contrast Russell’s and Frege’s conception of proper names
(3) Are proper names just disguised definite descriptions?
(4) ‘There is no more to meaning than reference’. Critically discuss.
THE SET TEXT
A. P. Martinich (ed.) (2001): The Philosophy of Language, 4th edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, (£20.99).
ADDITIONAL READING
Please Note:
The additional reading given below is not exhaustive. You may well find other useful books and anthologies in the library or elsewhere. These are just some of the books that I have used (explicitly or implicitly) in writing the lectures and handouts.
This additional reading is not in any way compulsory, but you may find it helpful, particularly when writing your essay or revising to look at some of these works.
Further suggested reading will be given in the course handouts.
VERY USEFUL TEXTS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE (most useful first):
- William G. Lycan (2000): Philosophy of Language: A Contemporary Introduction, London: Routledge. (I strongly recommend that you buy this text: it is an excellent introduction to many of the issues we will cover in the course.)
- Michael Devitt and Kim Sterelny (1987): Language and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language, Oxford: Blackwells.
- Simon Blackburn (1984): Spreading the Word, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Alex Miller (1998): Philosophy of Language, London: UCL press.
- Greg McCulloch (1995): The Mind and Its World, London: Routledge. (Perhaps the best introductory book to connect issues in the philosophy of language with issues in the philosophy of mind.)
- Robert J. Stainton (1996): Philosophical Perspectives on Language, Broadview Press.
- Greg McCulloch (1989): The Game of the Name, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Mark Platts (1979): Ways of Meaning: An Introduction to a Philosophy of Language, London: Routledge.
USEFUL COMPANIONS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE:
- Bob Hale and Crispin Wright (1997): A Companion to the Philosophy of Language, Oxford: Blackwells.
USEFUL ANTHOLOGIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE (most useful first):
- A. W. Moore (ed.) (1993): Meaning and Reference, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Robert M. Harnish (ed.) (1994): Basic Topics in the Philosophy of Language, Harvester Wheatsheaf.
- Mark Richard (ed.) (2003): Meaning, Blackwell Publishing.
- Robert J. Stainton (ed.) (2000): Perspectives in the Philosophy of Language: A Concise Anthology, Broadview Press.
- G. H. R. Parkinson (ed.) (1968): The Theory of Meaning, Oxford: OUP.
- Andrea Nye (ed.) (1998): Philosophy of Language: the Big Questions, Oxford: Blackwells.
- Philip Petitt and John McDowell (eds) (1988): Subject, Thought, and Context, Oxford: OUP.
- Alex Barber (ed.) (2003): The Epistemology of Language, Clarendon Press.
- Arindam Chakrabarti (ed.) (1997): Denying Existence: The Logic, Epistemology, and Pragmatics of Negative Existentials and Fictional Discourse, Kluwer.
- Alexander Miller and Crispin Wright (ed.) (2002): Rule-Following and Meaning, Acumen.
USEFUL SURVEY ARTICLES:
- Martin Davies (1996): 'The Philosophy of Language', in The Blackwells Companion to Philosophy, edited by N. Bunin and E. Tsui-James, Oxford: Blackwells.
- Christopher Peacocke (1995): 'The Philosophy of Language', in Philosophy 2: A Guide Through the Subject, edited by A.C Grayling, Oxford: OUP.
- Mark Sainsbury (1995): 'Philosophical Logic', sections 1-4, pp. 61-95, in Philosophy 1: A Guide Through the Subject, edited by A.C Grayling, Oxford: OUP.
SEMINAL BOOKS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE (post 1950, in order of publication):
- Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953): Philosophical Investigations, London: Macmillan.
- W. V. O. Quine (1960): Word and Object, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- J. L. Austin (1962): How to do things with Words, Oxford.
- John Searle (1969): Speech Acts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Hilary Putnam (1975): Mind, Language, and Reality: Philosophical Papers Volume 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Saul Kripke (1980): Naming And Necessity, Oxford: Blackwells. (This first appeared in 1972.)
- Saul Kripke (1982): On Rules and Private Language, Oxford: Blackwells.
- Gareth Evans (1982): The Varieties of Reference, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- David Lewis (1983): Philosophical Papers, Vol. 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Donald Davidson (1984): Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Paul Grice (1989): Studies in The Way of Words, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Francis Recanati (1997): Direct Reference, Blackwells.
- Robert Stalnaker (1999): Context and Content, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE (books relevant to this course published since 1990)
- Jerry Fodor (1995): The Elm and the Expert: Mentalese and its Semantics, MIT Press.
- Richard Larson and Gabriel Segal (1995): Knowledge of Meaning, MIT Press.
- Gary Ebbs (1997): Rule-Following and Realism, Harvard University Press.
- Scott Soames (2001): Beyond Rigidity, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Zoltan Kovecses (2002): Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, Oxford University Press.
Please Note: All books recommended for reading during the course should be available from the Philosophy Class Library, as well as from the University Library. We recommend that you learn to use the class library system, since many of the books you will need to consult will be on restricted access. The Departmental Librarian, Mrs Read, is very helpful and will be glad to assist you. Note that in all handouts, the titles of books and journals are in italics, while the titles of articles are given in inverted commas, and are followed by a source, either a book or a journal. You should follow the same convention in your own references, e.g., in your essays.
ADDITIONAL READING: SEMINAR BY SEMINAR
A set of additional readings for each seminar will be posted up here.
USEFUL LINKS FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
http://www.lawrence.edu/fac/ryckmant/PLL.htm
http://www.allianceforlifelonglearning.org/er/tree.jsp?c=40143
GENERAL ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS:
DICTIONARIES:
DATABASES:
(Note: no password required for local access; contact jmy@st-and.ac.uk for password for remote access.)
ON-LINE JOURNALS:
- Many Philosophy Journals can be accessed on-line at:
http://www-library.st-andrews.ac.uk/External/Journals/philosophy.html
VERY USEFUL WEB LINKS:
BUBL: http://link.bubl.ac.uk/Philosophy/ (Links to a wide range of Philosophy Internet resources.)
Guide to Philosophy on the Internet: http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/philinks.htm (perhaps THE philosophy site).
Philosophy at Large: http://www.liv.ac.uk/Philosophy/philos.html (detailed guide to Internet resources in philosophy, subdivided by type).
Philosophy in Cyberspace: http://www-personal.monash.edu.au/~dey/phil/ (annotated guide to more than 1000 philosophy sites).
SOSIG: http://www.sosig.ac.uk/roads/subject-listing/World-cat/philos.html (Links to a wide range of Philosophy Internet resources).
St. Andrews Virtual Library and Study Resource Centre: http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~vlibrary/vlhome.html
WWW Virtual Library: Philosophy: http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/Philosophy/VL/
JARGON-BUSTING: CONSTRUCT YOUR OWN GLOSSARY
It's a fact of life that analytic philosophy, like most other academic disciplines, involves a great deal of specialist terminology. You may feel a little daunted by the by the amount of unfamiliar terminology encountered in PY3004. But don't be. After a while much of this terminology (call it jargon) will become very familiar.
To facilitate your understanding, I strongly encourage you to produce a glossary of the key terms encountered in PY3004. Once you are on top of all this terminology, your study will become much more manageable.
Your glossary should at least include definitions of the following terms and expressions:
|
Ambiguity
Aposteriori
Apriori
Analytic
Assertion
Cancellability of implicature
Causal theory of names
Cluster theory of names
Cognitive value
Communication
Context
Context principle
Conventional Implicature
Conventional versus speaker meaning
Conversation
Conversational Implicature
Conversational Scorecard
Co-operative principle
Count noun
Dead versus live metaphor
Definite description
Demonstratives
Denotation |
Descriptivism
Detachability of implicature
Direct reference
Disjunctivity of implicature
Division of linguistic labour
Empty names
Explicature
Extension
Fictional names
Figurative use
Flaccid designator
Frege's identity puzzle
Frege's puzzle about belief
Frege-Russell thesis
General terms
Holism
Identity
Identity statement
Illocutionary force
Indexical
Intension
Kripkenstein's paradox
Literal discourse |
Logically proper name
Making as if to say
Mass term
Maxim of manner
Maxim of quantity
Maxim of quantity
Maxim of relation
Meaning
Metaphor
Millian view of proper names
Mode of presentation
Moore's Paradox
Naming view of language
Natural kind term
Natural versus non-natural meaning
Necessity
Negative existentials
Novel sentences
Opacity
Opaque contexts |
Pragmatics
Pragmatic theory of metaphor
Predicate
Presupposition (semantic)
Proper name
Proposition
Propositional attitude
Reference
Referent
Referential versus attributive use
Referentialism
Representation
Riddle of being
Riddle of non-being
Rigid designator
Rule
Rule-Following Considerations
Russell's principle
Saying that
Semantic theory of metaphor |
Sense
Sentence meaning versus speaker meaning
Sign
Simile
Simile theory of metaphor
Singular terms
Speech act
Stereotype
Straight versus sceptical solutions
Substitution
Synonymy
Twin-Earth thought experiments
Truth-condition
Truth-conditional theory of meaning and understanding
Understanding
Use theory of meaning and understanding
Verificationist theory of meaning |
FEEDBACK
There will be questionnaires to fill in at the end of the course where you can give formal feedback.
Please make every effort to fill these questionnaires in ¾ your views are VERY gratefully received.
Informal feedback can be given at any time to either myself (Patrick) or your seminar leader
If you are struggling with the course, please sing out as soon as possible.
Remember: perplexity is the natural philosophical state, so don't be overly-concerned if you find parts of the course very hard or confusing.
Don't be afraid to raise any concerns you may have.
In general, if you are experiencing problems, personal or academic, which are affecting your work, you should let someone know (your lecturer, your seminar leader, your Honours Supervisor, or staff at the Student Support Service) as soon as possible.
HOW TO WRITE A PHILOSOPHY ESSAY
Very useful advice on how to write a philosophy is essay is available from:
Jim Pryor's
Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper
Andrew Pyle's
On Writing a Philosophy Essay.
HOW TO SUCCEED IN EXAMS
I've written some guidance on how to succeed in exams. You can find it here.
Nearly all of this guidance is relevant to the writing of your PY3004 essay too.
UNIVERSITY COURSES ON: note-taking, essay-writing, and exam technique.
Did you know that the university puts on courses for all undergraduates in how to take notes, write essays, and succeed in exams?
You need to sign up for these courses in advance. Details can be found at the following link:
PAST PAPERS
Past papers for all exams in the period 1999-2002 are available at:
http://exams.st-andrews.ac.uk/exams/
Note:
Since course co-ordinators often change from year to year, there is no guarantee that the content and format of past papers will resemble future exams. It's for this reason that I've set forth some mock exams here.
© Patrick Greenough 2004.
If you have any suggestions as to how this site might be improved then please
email me.
Last modified: 8th Feb 2004.
