GG 2002 Regional Geography of South Asia and the Himalayas
5: The Colonial Legacy
Early east-west contacts
In ancient times, well-established lines of communication existed between
east and west. Alexander the Great reached the Indus in 326 BC, which led
the way to diplomatic contacts between Indian kingdoms and Ancient Greece,
and a fruitful exchange of ideas. In the 1st C. AD, a colony of Jews, escaping
from Roman persecution, had become established in Cochin in SW India, where
their descendants still live today. India also has an ancient Christan
community, said to have been founded by Thomas (the Doubter), one of the
12 Apostles. The east-west links, however, were broken by the Medieval
Crusades. Although the Crusades failed to win the Holy Land for Christendom,
they had an important long-term effect - a lasting enmity between Europe
and the Muslim kingdoms. This effectively severed trade routes between
East and West for hundreds of years. Limited trade did continue, through
Venice,
whose merchants (frequently Jews) traded in eastern Mediterranean ports
for spices: pepper, cinnamon, ginger, nutmegs, as well as precious stones
and silks. Venetian merchants commanded high prices for these goods, which
were in high demand in Europe. Other European states, therefore, had a
high interest in breaking the monopoly enjoyed by Venice, but Christian
traders were not welcome in Islamic ports. Genoa (another Italian State)
was particularly active, but its wars with Venice ended in costly failure
by early 15th C. The inaccessibility of the East only added to its mystique:
tales of fabulous wealth beyond the dreams of crowded Europe, impoverished
by years of war and epidemics.
The Portuguese
The breakthrough came when a new route to the east was found: around Africa.
During the late 15th C., the Portuguese were especially active in the search
for a sea-route around Africa, initially sponsored by Prince Henry 'The
Navigator'. Advances in knowledge and sea-craft during the 15th C.
resulted in steady progress, although this was slowed by the difficulty
of crossing the Tropics (disease and unfavourable winds), but success was
achieved by leaving the west African coast, crossing the Atlantic westwards
on the Trade winds, then back eastwards on the southern westerlies. Under
Vasco
da Gama, the Portuguese finally succeeded in crossing the Indian Ocean,
and landed in Calicut, India in 1498, 6 years after Columbus landed in
the Caribbean.
Trade had thrived in the Indian Ocean for centuries, between India,
the Muslin ports of East Africa, and the countries of east Asia as far
as China. This was soon to be disrupted by the Portuguese, who had no intention
of sharing trade, but sought to dominate the region. Conflict over trade
terms resulted in da Gama destroying an Indian fleet. Da Gama's return
with a valuable cargo caused much excitement in Portugal, inspiring thoughts
of a lucrative source of wealth, and evangelising zeal by Christian missionaries.
Subsequent Portuguese expeditions to SE India were bloody, and their dominance
was quickly established by superior firepower (the Indians had no cannon)
and ruthless treatment of prisoners. Many appalling atrocities were committed.
In 1510, they captured Goa, which they held until 1961, 14 years after
the rest of India had gained independence from Britain.
In the longer term, the Portuguese did not have the resources to manage
a large, remote empire, and other European powers were quick to move in,
including the Dutch, Danes, French, and British.
British India
Britain and France soon became the main European players in India, both
establishing trading posts and links with local rulers during the 17th
C. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to a London trading
company, giving it a monopoly on trade between Britain and India. For 250
years, British power in India was exercised not by the Government, but
by the East India Company, which grew from this initial charter.
Rivalries between French and British interests led to conflict, reflecting
the many French-British wars in Europe and elsewhere. Eventually, these
conflicts drew in local rulers, and closer European involvement in Indian
politics. The British took advantage of the power vacuum left by the collapse
of the Mughal empire to increase their dominance in Bengal (north-east
India), and took control of the region after Clive won the Battle of
Plassey (1757). This led to a period of expansion, in which local kingdoms
were conquered and annexed, and by the mid 19th C., India was effectively
under British control. A policy of 'divide and rule' was adopted, playing
off one state against another. In many areas, power was nominally in the
hands of local Maharajas, but by this time they exercised no real power
in terms of trade policy or foreign affairs, and India was basically a
patchwork of nominally independent states under overall British control.
The British viewed India as a place to make money, and did not tend
to interfere with local beliefs or traditions. There was some interference:
such as the abolition of sati - the practice of widows committing
ritual suicide on the pyre of their husbands, but on the other hand, the
British encouraged the zamindari system, in which local landowners
exercised feudal power. This eased the burden of tax collection for the
British, but exacerbated poverty and inequality which persists in many
parts of India to the present. The British also introduced the legendary
Indian bureaucracy, and established English as the official language of
India. The British also established plantations (tea, cotton, coffee),
the rail system, and irrigation projects. Primary industry was discouraged,
and imports of textiles from Britain effectively destroyed indigenous textile
production. The British administrative capital was originally in Calcutta
(because Bengal was one of the longest-standing seats of British power
in India), but changed to Delhi in 1911, following the construction of
New
Delhi on classical Georgian lines. The British had a summer capital
at the hill station of Shimla in the Siwaliks: away from the heat
of the Plains.
The 'Mutiny' and the Raj
The first major setback to British rule came in 1857: the so-called
Indian Mutiny, or as many Indians know it, the First War of Independence.
It was an uncoordinated affair, mainly confined to northern India, which
died out rather than came to a conclusive end. Afterwards, it was decided
to place the administration of the country into British Government control,
and the administrative role of the East India Company was wound up. The
Indian
Civil Service came into being, and during the 19th C., increasingly
senior posts opened up to Indians. Society was, however, rigidly hierarchical,
and impermeable social barriers existed between Indians (even high caste
Indians) and sahibs. Hinduism increased its influence during this period,
encouraged by the British (the caste system had many similarities with
the British class system).
Road to Independence
The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 with the objective
of promoting self-determination for Indians. Slow progress towards independence
was made by the British, but this was put on hold during WWI. Protests
were frequent, and a demonstration at Amritsar was put down by massacre
of civilians by British troops (1919). Similar to later actions of South
African forces at Soweto, and had a similar effect: strengthening resolve
for independence. In the inter-war years Gandhi emerged as the leader
of the independence movement. He promoted peaceful protest and non-violence,
and demonstrated the effectiveness of hunger strikes and civil disobedience.
Under Gandhi's influence the independece movement broadened from the middle
classes to the villages. Indian resentment increased during WWII, and independence
became inevitable, especially with the election of a Labour government
in Britain in 1945.
As the prospect of independence neared, Indian society became increasingly
divided along religious lines. Jawaharlal Nehru led the Congress
Party, and tried to promote a unified, secular India where all Indians
could live free from religious prejudice. However, Congress came be seen
as representing the Hindu majority, tending to alienate Mulsims. Muslim
interests were focused by The Muslim League, led by Muhammad
Jinnah. Jinnah had originally supported the idea of a united free India,
but felt increasingly marginalised by the Hindu-dominated Congress Party.
He therefore stood out for a separate Muslim State, stating his position
with the infamous words: 'I will have India divided, or India destroyed'.
The new Muslim state was to be called Pakistan, from Punjab, Afghanistan,
Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan, the regions from which
it was hoped it would be made up.
Gandhi - a powerful figure, respected by Muslims and Hindus alike -
tried to resist partition, arguing for tolerance and a united India. Increasing
unrest accelerated the pace towards independence, and negotiations were
led by a new Viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten.
Partition
A date was set for independence for a new divided India: 14th August 1947.
New borders were established by the British, under the Chairmanship of
Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a man with no experience of India. This was deliberate
policy: Mountbatten felt that the issues surrounding Partition were so
complex that one acquainted with them could never reach a decision: he
therefore decided to employ someone with no prior knowledge and - he hoped
- no prejudice to either side. The result was a disaster. Radcliffe defined
boundaries with a two-part Pakistan (West and East), incorporating the
areas with the highest proportions of Muslims. However, many Muslim settlements
were inside Indian territory, and many Hindus and Sikhs inside Pakistani
territory. The announcement was made after Independence was granted, and
was met with dismay from both Hindus and Muslims, who were both appalled
by the border line, especially in the Punjab. Almost immediately, communal
violence erupted, and a refugee crisis rapidly developed. It was estimated
that on 14th September, 1.25 million non-Muslims (Hindus and Sikhs) were
fleeing west Punjab, heading for Indian territory, while almost 900,000
Muslims were fleeing in the opposite direction. In all, 5.5 million Hindus
and Sikhs fled to India, while 5.8 million Muslims fled to Pakistan. Sikhs
- who also had a claim to the Punjab as their homeland (there was a Sikh
kingdom centred on Punjab prior to British takeover) - also came under
attack. Gangs and mobs roamed through the cities and countryside, killing
and looting, and trains carrying refugees were held up, and the passengers
killed. In all, approximately 1 million people lost their lives in the
autumn/winter of 1947/1948. Gandhi attempted to calm the population, but
was assassinated by a small group of Hindu extremists in 1948.
Was the transition to Independence too quick? Mountbatten has been criticised
for bringing forward the date of independence by one year, and for rushing
the process of the Boundary Commission. It has been claimed that the British
administration were well aware of the danger of communal violence, and
rushed through independence so as to shift responsibility to the new governments.
On the other hand, Mountbatten may have feared worse violence if the process
was delayed. Thus, although Independence was granted to India without the
need for a war against the British, the transition was far from smooth.
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