Essay and exam advice
The advice below is taken from the Philosophy Handbook for Undergraduates 2012/13. You should also read Jim Pryor's essay writing advice for Harvard and Princeton students (follow this and you will not go far wrong).
Another useful site is the Writing Tutor for Introductory Philosophy Courses. which illustrates how to revise a short philosophy paper through several drafts. Notice how much the paper improves with each revision. The final draft will also give you a standard to aspire to!
Importantly, also see the University’s Guide to Avoiding Academic Misconduct and the Students Association publication "Don’t Get it Wrong".
What Sort of Thing is Expected?
Writing assessed essays offers you the opportunity to show your comprehension of some of the material covered in the module, and to demonstrate your own philosophical skills. We will be delighted if you can surprise us with new insights and arguments, but a student essay can be very good without being very original. Your primary aim should be to show sound understanding of the issues raised in the question, and to engage critically with the views and arguments of others who have addressed them. Such understanding and engagement is shown partly by structuring your essay clearly and by explaining the views and arguments of others (past philosophers, authors, lecturers) in your own words. If you make quotations, keep them short, and always acknowledge the source. It is not required that you commit yourself unreservedly to one point of view. If your exposition is accurate, you should get at least a second class grade (between 11 and 16). But you may do better if you go on to "chance your arm" a bit, and say where and why you disagree with certain views or arguments, or offer suggestions of your own. We encourage you to think for yourself; you do not have to agree with the views of your lecturer, your tutor, or current orthodoxy – we mark your work more for clarity of understanding and cogency of argument than for the views expressed in it.
Preparation
Read the material suggested by your lecturers and tutors, as well as your lecture notes on the topic, if any. If you are not sure what to read, ask for advice. Don't try to read too much; it is much more effective to read a few items carefully (assuming that they are the right ones!) than it is to skim over many. If the question is about a particular philosophical text, concentrate on reading that text, rather than secondary literature. Remember that the reading should be a stimulus to your own thought; don't produce an essay that merely summarises what you have read. Allow yourself time to think about the topic you have been asked to write on and the reading you have done, and to plan your essay.
Writing
Make sure that you address the question set. If you are asked to discuss a particular one of Kant's formulations of the "Categorical Imperative", for example, don't waste time and space summarising all the other formulations. Clarity is of the first importance. Make sure that you understand what you are writing, and that your reader can do so too. Explain all technical terms (use some of the many dictionaries and encyclopaedias of philosophy to check on their meaning, if you're unsure). It greatly helps to give concrete examples of the application of abstract concepts and theories – and preferably to give your own examples, rather than merely repeating those given in lectures and/or books. If you do not understand what you are saying, and are unable to explain it or illustrate it with examples, you will run into trouble. (It is sometimes legitimate to say that you do not understand a particular philosophical theory or argument, provided that you can give a reason – such as "He seems to ignore the possibility that ..." or "I cannot see how this theory can avoid the objection that ...". This involves not blank incomprehension, but the comprehension of difficulties.)
Structure
You must have a plan. Make one before you start writing your main draft, but be prepared to change it – second thoughts are often better. Begin by saying what you are going to do – the Introduction; do it – the Middle Bit; summarise what you have done – the Conclusion. Of course, it’s the Middle Bit that matters. Make the structure clear: divide your essay into sections, perhaps giving them headings and sub-heading; use paragraphs appropriately; consider numbering your points; use "signpost" phrases such as "First, I shall consider ..." and "I shall now go on to discuss..." to make clear to the reader what you are doing and where you are going. Show a sense of proportion – for example, in giving your objections to a particular view, it will usually be best to deal with the least important objections first, to clear them out of the way quickly, and then to discuss the main objections in more detail.
Content
Argument is of prime importance. In this context, "argument" means any form of rational persuasion, including formally set out deductions as in logic, but also the pointing out of inconsistencies, vagueness, ambiguities, concealed presuppositions, false or dubious factual claims, and so on. There is limited scope for non-rational forms of persuasion in a philosophy essay – rhetorical flourishes or quotations from poetry may be ornaments to style, but your main concern in the essay must be with the giving of reasons. Mere statement of opinion, or of the views and arguments of others, is not enough: opinions, views and arguments must be discussed. In short: substantiate your opinions; give arguments for your views. It is sometimes said that one should always define one’s terms, but this is not always possible. Sometimes it is: for example, if the question is "Is functionalism correct?", you would do well to begin by defining the term "functionalism" as it is used in the relevant context. But often in philosophy there are no very technical terms involved, and the focus is on the puzzling nature of very familiar concepts. Here attempts at definition may be unhelpful if not impossible: for example, if the question is "Does the past still exist?", it will almost certainly be hopeless to begin by trying to define what "past" and "exist" mean. However, it will be relevant to examine what we mean when we say that certain sorts of things exist, or are now past. An uncontroversial initial definition is often impossible, but what you can seek is conceptual clarification or elucidation – a clear overview of the basic concepts involved and how they relate to one another.
When you put forward a view for discussion, it will often help to contrast it with something else: for example, in saying what determinism is, give some account of the alternative: indeterminism, randomness, or whatever it is in the relevant context. Avoid the following like the plague: irrelevance (especially answering a question different from the one set); waffle (don't think that, just because a philosophical question is posed in ordinary language, you can deal with it adequately "off the top of your head" without having learnt from the module and relevant reading); plagiarism (always acknowledge your sources, in footnotes and, in a bibliography listing all the works you have consulted in writing it).
Finally: it is very important to leave yourself enough time to write a good essay. An essay started at 4:00 a.m. on the day it is due to be submitted will not do you justice! Allow yourself enough time to write at least two drafts, and to read over the first carefully before beginning the second. Don't forget to proof-read the final draft: an essay full of spelling mistakes and typos is a sure sign of one that has been hastily and carelessly prepared.